| BOHR International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research 2026, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–10 DOI: 10.54646/bijsshr.2026.83 www.bohrpub.com

RESEARCH

Leveraging the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA for youth development through universities

S. Jobayear Ahmed1*†, Hamida Yeasmin2, Md. Ifran Kader Chowdhury3 and Md. Masud Rana4

1Department of Entrepreneurship Economics, Ministry of Commerce and Adjunct Faculty, Bangladesh Foreign Trade Institute, Dhaka School of Economics (DScE), Dhaka, Bangladesh

2Department of Livestock Services, Livestock and Dairy Development (LDDP) Project, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dhaka, Bangladesh

3Grameen University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

4Department of Business Administration, Sonargaon University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

*Correspondence:
S. Jobayear Ahmed,
jobayear2017@gmail.com

†ORCID:
S. Jobayear Ahmed
0000-0001-6356-2666

Received: 12 July 2025; Accepted: 15 December 2025; Published: 14 January 2026

License: CC BY 4.0

Copyright Statement: Copyright © 2026; The Author(s).

This paper is based on a desk-based secondary study aimed at studying the scope of leveraging the knowledge and professional networks of the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA to help youth development in Bangladesh. Data was collected from the World Bank, UN, government reports, books, and journals related to migration, education, training, and youth development. Descriptive analysis (percentages, frequency tables, bar, pie, and line charts) was used for quantitative data, and content, thematic, and case study analysis was used for qualitative data. The Bangladeshi diaspora population in the US represents a growing reservoir of intellectual capital, professional expertise, and global networks, which can play a transformative role in youth development in Bangladesh. The study also identified that universities have traditionally played a leadership role in education, Research and Development (R&D), development, innovations, and leadership. The study also identified that diaspora might contribute to the national building efforts by leveraging their financial affluence, intellectual capital, professional expertise, and global networks. The paper recommended connecting the diaspora for education, guidance for higher studies abroad and skills training, mentorship programs, and financing the education. The study also identified challenges with policies, limited diaspora data, inadequate host institution absorption capacities, and ineffective leadership, which, if addressed, can really generate a better outcome for a better Bangladesh in the days to come.

Keywords: diaspora, youth, development, knowledge, professional networks, universities

Introduction

Bangladesh has been ranked 129th in the UNDP’s Human Development Index for 2023–2024, indicating progress in health, education, and access to knowledge. The index measures progress in three dimensions: long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent standard of living. The report found improvement in health and education indicators but lost some equality values. Sri Lanka and Bhutan ranked highest, while India and Pakistan ranked 134th and 164th, respectively (1). The Bangladeshi diaspora, comprising 13 million Bangladeshis abroad, is the sixth-largest migrant group globally. The diaspora has a significant impact on Bangladesh’s economy through remittances, investments, and intellectual exchanges. Remittances contributed to 8.3% of the country’s GDP in 2022, improving living standards, financing education, and boosting local economies (2). Ullah (3) observed that only 2 million Bangladeshis are permanently living abroad, while more than 70 million Chinese and 30 million Indian diasporas are doing so. Diasporas maintain a different development linkage from conventional migrants, and state policies must be in place to attract direct investment. Bangladesh is experiencing a demographic transition, with young people aged 15–29 making up 27.82% of the population. Edelman (4) observed that Gen Z is a tipping point for action in a polarized, social-first world since they hold immense influence and gravitational pull over every other generation. Kabir (5) noted that Generation Z, born between 1995 and 2010, makes up 23% of the global population. By 2025, they will outnumber Generation Y as the largest global generation, making them the most significant market for products and services. However, failure to adapt to the changing age structure increases the risk of missing out on economic growth and worse consequences. A balanced generational mix in public decision-making is needed to address issues like conflicts, terrorism, climate change, rising inequality, and economic instability. Adore (6) noted that Bangladesh’s youth population, with over 160 million, faces numerous challenges, including unemployment, lack of education and skills training, health and nutrition issues, and limited participation in decision-making. The government has implemented initiatives to address these issues, such as vocational training programs and employment generation schemes. Access to education and skills training is also a challenge, particularly for marginalized communities. Limited participation in decision-making is another challenge faced by young people. To achieve sustainable development, Bangladesh must address these issues and promote youth development through youth-led ambitions and social entrepreneurship. Investing in young people can transform Bangladesh’s demographic window of opportunity. Figure 1 outlines the status of youth unemployment from 2004 to 2023 in Bangladesh. The data was collected from Satista. It shows that in recent years the rate of unemployment has soared beyond 14%, which is higher than at any other time.

FIGURE 1. Bangladesh: youth unemployment rate from 2004 to 2023. Source: Statista.

Objectives

The article is based on the following key objectives:

•To observe the status of overseas employment and the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA and their professional networks.

•To identify the avenue for youth development and the role of universities in youth development.

•To observe the role of the Bangladeshi diaspora in development and the challenges of engaging the diaspora in youth development.

•To recommend a strategy for youth development in Bangladesh through universities with the support from the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA.

Research questions

The article is based on the following research questions:

•What is the status of overseas employment and the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA and their professional networks?

•What is the avenue for youth development and the role of universities in youth development?

•What is the role of the Bangladeshi diaspora in development and the challenges of engaging the diaspora in youth development?

•What could be the strategy for youth development in Bangladesh through universities with the support from the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA?

Literature review

Kuznetsov and Sabel (7) observed that the global circulation of high-skill and low-skill labor from poor to rich economies is creating new opportunities for economic development. Siar (8) observed that, high-skilled migration can increase migrants’ intellectual, economic, and social capital, benefiting home countries through knowledge exchanges with talented students going abroad to study and work in developed economies, while less educated and low-skilled emigrants work in factory production or healthcare. Ullah (3) identified that diasporas significantly contribute to their countries’ economic development, providing external capital. The diaspora also plays a crucial role in the country’s growth, with foreign direct investments reaching $1.4 billion. They invest in key sectors, facilitate trade, and promote cultural exchange (2). Newland K. (9) outlined that emigrants and their descendants significantly contribute to their countries’ development through financial contributions, business formation, talent partnerships, and knowledge exchange. OECD (10) reported that, in 2023, over 150 million OECD countries were foreign-born, with the US hosting a third. Despite growth, immigrants still lag behind native-born peers in the labor market, education, and living conditions. Cummings and Gamlen (11) explored the effectiveness of diaspora engagement institutions (DEI) in addressing migrant issues in developing countries, highlighting their effectiveness in fostering a stronger sense of home-country belonging. Talib et al. (12) discussed the impact of structural factors on Malaysian clusters, suggesting that cluster organizations should engage with diaspora networks abroad to enhance their success. Riddle and Nielsen (13) noted that governments must understand diaspora investment and entrepreneurship’s unique characteristics, create tailored policies, connect investors, create incentives, and measure effectiveness for optimal growth. Douw et al., explored the role of government-led initiatives in enhancing economic ties with diaspora communities, particularly in India and Brazil (14). It suggests four key policy avenues: strengthening institutions, streamlining mobility policies, aligning expectations, identifying sector strengths, and strengthening domestic regulatory institutions. Rajan and Ullah (15) discussed that the importance of diaspora involvement in crisis scenarios, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of diaspora engagement and the role of diasporic communities in navigating emergencies. Kelly and Niraula (16) explored the role of diasporic communities in providing support to immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic. It analyzes interviews with key stakeholders from South Asian-focused associations, government, and non-governmental organizations in Ontario, Canada. Rahman (17) highlighted the significant role of the Bangladeshi academic diaspora in the country’s knowledge capital development, contributing to the country’s reputation, innovation, and civil society. Sultana and Rayhan (18) studied the challenges that diaspora communities face when they view their homeland as their ultimate destination, examining the identity formation, survival strategies, and acculturation of the first and second generations of the Bangladeshi diaspora. Biao (19) noted the relationship between Oracle Certified Professional (OCP) and China is closely linked to their career trajectory. Hazelkorn (20) observed that, higher education (HE) is a complex global enterprise, with university rankings becoming an influencing voice as they are. They are transforming the state’s relationship with HE driving competition at institutional, national, and global levels. Cauce (21) suggested that, universities should foster diverse discussions on social and political issues, allowing for critical and constructive debate and encouraging passion for bilingualism, immigration, and acculturation. Kolomytseva and Pavlovska (22) noted that the intensification of innovations has led to the creation of national innovation systems (NIS), which support and ensure innovation processes by creating favorable conditions for interaction between different actors, where the universities may play a crucial role in NIS. Hussain et al. (23) explored the role of universities in promoting life skills among Pakistani youth in the 21st century through a survey of 50 teachers and 400 students from five universities and found that universities play a crucial role in fostering life skills through well-designed co-curricular activities, such as IT, communication, critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and innovation. Due to the universities’ capacities to engage and activate multiple segments of the state and society and having maximum connectivity as institution, it is imperative to recommend a strategy for youth development in Bangladesh through universities with the support from the Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA.

Methodology

The paper is based on a desk-based secondary study conducted in Dhaka in January 2025.

Data sources

Data sources included the reports of the World Bank, the International Organization of Migration, the reports and statistics of the governments of the USA and Bangladesh, various books, journals associated with migration, education, training, and youth development, and statista.

Data collection

Data was collected from the secondary sources mentioned above. Upon collection of the data, it was processed for further analysis.

Data processing

Data was collected from the secondary sources. After that the data was arranged according to the themes aligned in the objective of the study and processed for sorting only the requisite information.

Data analysis. Data was thematically analyzed based on the predetermined themes laid out in the objectives of the study. Descriptive analysis (percentages, frequency tables, bar, pie, and line charts) was used for quantitative data, and content, thematic, and case study analysis was used for qualitative data. Upon analysis an abridged version of the research paper has been prepared.

Results or findings

The findings of the article are outlined below:

Current statistics of overseas employment

Figure 2 outlined the monthly overseas employment in 2024, where it has been found that a higher number of overseas employments occurred in the months of May, October, and November 2024.

FIGURE 2. Monthly overseas employment in 2024. Source: Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training (BMET) (29).

Bangladeshi diaspora in the USA

Akhter and Yang (24) observed that Bangladeshi diaspora population is concentrated in New York, California, Michigan, Texas, New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida. Despite being well-educated, Bangladeshi immigrants have low average income and high poverty rates. It is necessary to explore cultural retention, socioeconomic adaptation, structural adaptation, and political adaptation, comparing it with other Asian and non-Asian diasporic communities. Besides, they also have their networks and connectivity that could be an asset in this connection. The following Figures 3 and 4 outline the classes of Bangladeshi immigrants in the USA from 2010 to 2022.

FIGURE 3. Total number of Bangladeshi immigrants to the USA, 2010–2022. Source: Author, based on Akhter and Yang (24).

FIGURE 4. Category-wise percentages of Bangladeshi immigrants to the USA, 2010–2022. Source: Author, based on Akhter and Yang (24).

Patinkin (25) observed that neoclassical economics assumes diminishing returns, with high returns falling and low returns rising. The North-to-North migration from Europe to North America during the 18th and 19th centuries was primarily an equalizing dynamics mechanism. Social mechanisms are designed to mitigate or defeat the dynamics of divergence of the Matthew principle, such as antitrust policy, separation of powers, term limits, and progressive income taxes. Devane (26) observed that diaspora members are not typically pioneer investors in high-tech industries in their home countries. Most investors prefer investments within five hours of their home, and only about 5% seriously contemplate investing in emerging markets. Foreign direct investment is a big company game, with U.S. foreign investors being the largest firms in their industries. Expats can play a crucial role in accelerating and leveraging the international success of domestic entrepreneurs and companies, building awareness of investment opportunities among OECD corporations. The Bangladeshi diaspora is educated and has a higher household income level, with the highest number in New York City. They are concentrated in major metropolitan areas and have well-funded organizations promoting Bengali language and culture. The US is the seventh most common destination for Bangladesh-born emigrants and the fifth-largest source of remittances to the country, with Bangladesh’s remittances totaling $14.1 billion in 2012 (27). Md Mizanur Rahman (28) found that local engagement involves adapting to a new environment while maintaining cultural norms, while transnational engagement improves the lives of marginalized people in their home country.

Role of universities in youth development

Hazelkorn (20) explored the transformation of rankings to a policy instrument, its impact on the state’s relationship with HE, and the implications of recent social-political developments. He also examined that rankings have altered the relationship between HE and the state, the accountability agenda, and the geopolitics of HE. Cauce (21) commented that balancing neutrality and objectivity requires self-awareness, discipline protocols, and partnerships with diverse perspectives. Passion, community connection, and desire for change enhance educational engagement and drive discovery. Kolomytseva and Pavlovska (22) focused on the theoretical and methodological background of universities’ role in the NIS, their evolution, and their functions in the structure. They highlighted the increasing importance of education in innovation processes and the changes in curricula, organizational models, and approaches to external cooperation with science and business. The paper also discusses the key functions of universities in NIS, including education, R&D, development, and promotion of innovations. It emphasizes the need to develop resource and infrastructural potential and innovation capabilities. Hussain et al. (23) explored the role of universities and identified that universities equip the students with ICT skills for a productive life in the 21st century apart from disseminating the knowledge in the form of academic and certificate courses and trainings. The key results are shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5. Main life skills promoted by universities among young students. Source: Hussain et al. (23).

Diaspora for development

Kelly and Niraula (16) contributed to understanding the value of diasporic social capital during times of acute need by exploring the “diaspora-development link,” focusing on the economic ties between émigrés and diasporas and their homeland. Such communities contribute to poverty reduction, economic growth, foreign direct investment, trade linkages, and knowledge and technology transfer. Diaspora knowledge networks (DKNs) emerged in the 1990s as associations of skilled expatriates who contribute to their countries’ development. Bangladeshis, the sixth-largest group of migrants globally, remain deeply connected to their homeland, expressing their passion for its development. Non-resident Bangladeshis (NRBs) are key stakeholders in Bangladesh’s economic development due to their influence in international affairs and foreign assistance and financial resources to contribute to the development of the country. The Bangladeshi diaspora, comprising 13% of expatriates in the USA and UK, contributed 20.7% of national remittances in the Fiscal Year 2019–2020. During the COVID-19 pandemic, diaspora members continued their financial contributions, which were further accelerated by the government offering a cash incentive on remittance since 2019 and enhancing remittance flows. The diaspora’s social contribution includes civic, intellectual, and philanthropic aspects. The 8th Five-Year Plan acknowledges the importance of a skilled workforce and the potential for reintegrating diaspora communities. Organizations like Groupe Banques Populaires, Banco Solidario, Inter-American Development Bank, World Council of Credit Unions, and PRODEM are implementing programs to mobilize migrant populations towards productive activities and job creation. Governments are attracting remittances, project collaboration, matching funds, and investment. Diaspora business and investment can drive economic growth by linking to business opportunities, providing market information, and driving trade and investment. Knowledge transfer mechanisms can tap into skilled professionals abroad. The followings are two case stories of Bangladesh.

A case story of Bangladesh Flash Flood August 2024

The recent floods in Bangladesh have left nearly 6 million people facing devastation and uncertainty. There was a critical need for immediate aid and long-term recovery efforts, with a clear message to the diaspora to contribute with their financial resources, skills, and expertise. The diaspora has historically been a reliable force in humanitarian causes, but the current crisis demands more organized efforts to fully leverage their financial contributions, skills, and resources. Several prominent Bangladeshi-born Britons have called for a unified approach from the diaspora to address the severe flooding crisis. With 2.4 million Bangladeshi diaspora members worldwide, including 700,000-800,000 in the UK, they supported the country in the time of danger (30).

Enamul Haque—digital deep dive

Enamul Haque is a seasoned IT industry veteran with nearly 30 years of experience. He has worked with renowned companies like Wipro, Microsoft, Capgemini, Nokia, and HCL Technologies, as well as international organizations like the UNHCR and ITU. Haque is known for his expertise in AI-driven robotic process automation (RPA), service integration, and digital transformation, helping Fortune 500 businesses navigate the rapidly changing technology landscape. He is also an accomplished author and researcher, with a deep understanding of the industry and a keen interest in AI, IoT, and big data analytics. Haque holds a license in Informatique from the University of Geneva, a degree in mathematics and analytics from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, and a leadership and mentoring certification from Harvard Business School. He is a sought-after speaker and guest lecturer at the University of Coventry’s London campus (31). He has been disseminating technology education in Bangla through his YouTube channel.

University-led youth development through diaspora with knowledge and professional networks

Siar (8) observed that, high-skilled migration can increase migrants’ intellectual, economic, and social capital, benefiting home countries through knowledge exchanges. Migrants accumulate new skills and build professional contacts, like the Indian software industry’s success in the US. Mobilizing expatriate professionals and engaging them in home country development is crucial. Consistent policies and programs are needed to tap these resources. The global circulation of high-skill and low-skill labor is transforming economies, creating new opportunities for economic development. The brain drain pattern of migration has led to talented students working in developed economies, while emigrants with fewer skills find new career opportunities in factory production or healthcare. To address startup problems and form a medium-skill diaspora, both sending and receiving countries should develop programs to support diaspora networks, address cultural frictions, and regulate working conditions. Temporary return programs like the International Organization for Migration’s Temporary Return of Qualified Nationals Project (TRQN) can enhance knowledge transfer and capacity building in countries of origin.

Bangladesh’s efforts for engaging the BD diaspora for national development

The Bangladesh government introduced the “National Diaspora Policy of Bangladesh-2023” in 2023 to encourage expatriates to contribute to the country’s economic growth. The policy encourages participation in various sectors and encourages remittances from the diaspora, which could reduce poverty and improve living standards. The policy also aims to promote innovation and growth by facilitating knowledge and skill transfer from the diaspora. It also aims to increase Bangladesh’s soft power internationally by showcasing its rich cultural heritage. The Bangladeshi diaspora plays a crucial role in the country’s growth and development. However, obtaining accurate information about the population of Bangladeshis living abroad is challenging.

Challenges for engaging the BD diaspora

Diasporas and traditional humanitarian actors often lack the same language and technical vocabulary, leading to a lack of coordination and operational coordination. Diasporas are open to improving operational coordination, but it is not a prerequisite for crisis response. They also lack access to international organizations and stakeholders, often viewing them as a closed club. There are also struggles that the diasporas face in their countries and societies where they live, and they need the support from their home countries. A dynamic diaspora database is crucial for policy and decision-making, but the government-initiated registration process is slow. Inadequate strategies and plans are needed to include diasporas in national development planning. A policy framework is needed to recognize and address economic and non-economic contributions. Diaspora descendants’ efforts are often unacknowledged, and institutional mechanisms underperform. Improved accountability and transparency are needed to stimulate diaspora financial contributions. A guiding mechanism and regular communication with diaspora networks are needed. Talent attraction and short-term skills transfer schemes face challenges in the national and diaspora context. These include a lack of robust policies, inadequate promotion of programs, limited information among the diaspora community, data scarcity, limited diaspora data, inadequate host institution absorption capacities, ineffective leadership, limited internal capacity, lack of effective monitoring and evaluation, financial resources, integration and mobility, public opinion of returnee diaspora, and trust dynamics between government and diaspora. These challenges can limit the potential for learning and scale-up and may lead to misalignment with national priorities.

Discussions

The diaspora are the forerunners in the aspects of knowledge, skill, and wealth seeking from the developed world who can easily bridge the gap between the demand and supply of the quest for knowledge, skills, and employability. Their advanced skills, global exposure, and strong professional presence in sectors such as technology, healthcare, academia, finance, and entrepreneurship positions them as valuable actors and offer a strategic avenue for improving the quality of education, fostering innovation, and strengthening students’ career readiness. Universities have traditionally played a leadership role in education, Research and Development (R&D), development, innovations, and leadership. The diaspora might contribute to the national building efforts by leveraging their financial affluence, intellectual capital, professional expertise, and global networks. But realizing the benefits of diaspora engagement requires deliberate strategies, strong institutional commitment, and a supportive policy environment that encourages long-term collaboration between the Bangladeshi diaspora in the US and universities in Bangladesh. There are challenges associated with policies, limited diaspora data, inadequate host institution absorption capacities, and ineffective leadership.

Recommendations

Universities may adopt the following youth development programmes in collaboration with the diaspora and the government of Bangladesh by developing a diaspora database and integrating that into the national database.

Education

The current education or the academic courses may be redesigned or reevaluated with the aid of the diaspora networks through discussion boards, advisory councils, and consultation meetings. At present many eminent researchers and academicians are working abroad in different US universities and many other top universities abroad. Besides, they may be appointed as the advisors in the academic councils of the universities. For example, Mr. Srikant Datar, the Dean of Harvard Business School, has been appointed as the Chief Advisor of Indian Institute of Management (IIM).

Higher studies and skills training

Currently many diaspora members are providing guidance for higher studies mostly individually in their social media pages, groups, and YouTube channels. There is a competition of increasing following, as this is a source of passive income apart from the social service they are doing. In most of the cases the efforts become repetitive with minimum points of difference. If the same effort could be done from an umbrella where the faculties, PhD researchers, Master’s students, and new graduates who entered the job fields could collaboratively contribute, in that case it would generate a more productive outcome. There are also individual and small groups of skill trainers who are doing invaluable services if unified under a single umbrella. Even there could be opportunities for paid services as well.

Hosting the global exams and education financing for the aspiring scholars

Usually the guidance for the global examinations like the GRE or GMAT is usually done online by the students studying in foreign universities. Besides, there are admission counselling and immigration consulting forms working for the same purposes. Usually in the case of the latter, a lot of complaints arise due to fake advertising, commitments, and harassment for those who are seeking services. Apart from breeding fear of the competitive exams, the consulting firms also hide a lot of realities abroad and never guide students in this regard. Besides, none of the groups can provide any sustainable solution for financing education other than the existing full or partial scholarships and the TA and RA roles. On the other hand, the students applying to the universities have very less bargaining power with the aspired universities. In this case, if the universities take the initiative, it will be a very good effort where the students will be trained, upskilled, and financed by the host country diaspora to continue education and pay off later.

Inter-university and university-industry linkage

The diaspora may also support the Inter-University and University-Industry Linkage so that the students may migrate or transfer their credits during their undergraduate and master’s courses or get priority in admission of scholarship seeking or employment in the concerned sector during and after graduation in order to support their education.

Mentorship programs and research collaborations

The diaspora may also assist to research, development, and policy advocacy in the emerging fields of agriculture, production, entrepreneurship, IT, fintech, healthcare, and tourism through mini research laboratories through mentorship programs and research collaborations. This will help the students to learn research, publish articles, understand the current research trends, and serve the country. Besides, there will also be opportunities to seek funds from the renowned research labs like MIT J-PAL, Y-Rise program, etc., from universities and organizations like World Bank, ADB, or UN, and renowned company laboratories like the Bell Lab, NASA, Microsoft Corporation, Google, Yahoo, Airbus, etc. They can also serve the country with their achieved knowledge and go for further education and careers.

Remote internship and employment facilitation

A remote internship is an internship that allows the intern to work remotely, as in anywhere other than the office. The diasporas can facilitate the remote internship and employment opportunity for the youth by the diaspora.

Conclusion

Commonly universities, youth, and diaspora bear unlimited potential. If the three forces can be unified, in that case the outcome may be truly meaningful and everlasting. Therefore, it is high time to research the potentials of leveraging diaspora for youth development so that the knowledge and professional networks of the Bangladeshi diaspora in the US help youth development in Bangladesh through universities to revitalize the current education or the academic courses and guide the students for higher studies and skills training, supported through mentorship programs and financed in education. In that case, it will generate a better outcome for a better Bangladesh in the days to come.

Limitations

The key limitation of the study is the absence of primary data and stakeholders’ perspective, which, if collected, could offer a holistic view about the issue and help make inferences. Secondary data was used to meet the requirements, but since the secondary data was processed, the holistic view and inferences could not be generated.

Permission to reuse and copyright

Permission was obtained through email and automatic software generated queries for use of copyrighted material from other sources (including the web).

Abbreviations

ADB, Asian Development Bank; AI, artificial intelligence; GDP, gross domestic product; GMAT, Graduate Management Admission Test; GRE, Graduate Record Examination; ICT, information and communication technology; IoT, internet of things; IT, information technology; ITU, International Telecommunication Union; MIT J-PAL, Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab; NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; OECD, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development; RA, research assistant; TA, teaching assistant; UK, United Kingdom; UN, United Nations; UNDP, United Nations Development Programme; UNHCR, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; USA, United States of America; Y-RISE, Yale Research Initiative on Innovation and Scale.

Author contributions

The Author Contributions section is provided in a separate attachment in the prescribed format. The Author Contributions statement describes the contributions of individual authors referred to by their initials, and by doing so, all authors agree to be accountable for the content of the work.

Funding

No external fund was received or used in order to conduct any part of the study.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the support of the Ministry of Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment and the Dhaka School of Economics (DScE) for conducting the study and the development of the subsequent paper. We are also thankful to our colleagues from those two institutes who aided the efforts of the authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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